Wendell Mendell, Dave McKay, Chuck Meyer and Mike Duke of JSC participated in the International Lunar Workshop hosted by the University of Bern and the European Space Agency (ESA) in Beatenberg, Switzerland May 31 to June 3, 1994 to consider future plans for internationally coordinated programs for robotic and human Lunar Exploration. The workshop considered scientific, technical, political and economic reasons why lunar exploration should be conducted as a coordinated and truly international venture. Working Groups considered current plans for lunar activities, transportation capabilities, political, legal and economic aspects, protection of the lunar environment, infrastructure, lunar site selection and the framework of international collaboration. The results of these working groups will be published in the Proceedings of the Workshop. Speakers at the workshop included: R.M. Bonnet, J. Geiss, H.H. Schmitt, H.S. Wolff, H. Bondi, J.M. Logsdon, Y. Langevin, J.-P. Swings, J. Rasool, R. Kouda, A. Kiss, P. Spudis, G. Giralt and M.B. Duke.

In his keynote address at the Workshop, Sir Hermann Bondi emphasized that 'Big Science' is necessarily linked to public affairs and that the Moon as a base is a proposal that is likely to be attractive in various ways: in the eyes of the public, in its engineering challenges, in the exploration of the MoonÕs potential for habitability and in its effectiveness as a base for scientific enterprises. It may well be the case that, on its own, no one of these arguments could justify the proposal, but that taken together there may be sufficient reason for a coordinated international program to go back to the Moon. Other speakers reviewed the state of knowledge of the Moon and what could be learned from a new lunar program. Paul Spudis, for example, presented Clementine data and Jack Schmitt forcefully presented a business plan for a hypothetical multinational company that would mine the Moon for He-3 as an energy source. John Logsdon reviewed the reasons for going to the Moon the first time. Mike Duke discussed the usefulness of the Moon as a stepping stone along the way toward a manned Mars mission.

THE MEETING WAS ENTHUSIASTIC ABOUT THE RICH OPPORTUNITIES OFFERED BY THE EXPLORATION AND UTILIZATION OF THE MOON.

At the end of the Workshop the following Declaration was issued:

On the initiative of Switzerland and the European Space Agency, representatives from space agencies, scientific institutions and industry from around the world met in Beatenberg, Switzerland from 31 May to 3 June 1994 to consider plans for the implementation of internationally coordinated programs for robotic and human Lunar Exploration.

-- The uniqueness of the Earth-Moon system was emphasized and the potential of the Moon as a natural long-term space-station was recognized.

-- The Workshop agreed that the time was right, scientifically and technologically, for a staged lunar program implemented in evolutionary phases, the first phase involving science, technology, and resource exploration missions. The initial phases of the program, involving Moon orbiters and landers with roving robots, are within the capabilities of the individual space agencies technically and financially; but the benefits, scientifically and technologically, would be greatly enhanced by close coordination. Each phase should set the task for the next one, but will be fully justified on its own merits without being in any way dependent of the follow-on.

-- Strong interest was expressed in the science of the Moon (illuminating the history of the Earth-Moon system), from the Moon (for astronomical projects), and on the Moon (biological reactions to low gravity and the unique radiation environment).

-- The phased evolutionary approach allows the differences of opinion over the role of humans in space and the economic utilization of the Moon to be assessed later in the light of results from the earlier phases. As the program progresses, it is possible that the attractions and benefits of human presence on the Moon will become clearly apparent. It is evident, however, that the Moon would represent the next logical step and a test bed in any plans of human expansion into the solar system.

-- The Workshop concluded that existing launcher systems would permit the implementation of the initial phases. The significant technological advances required in areas such as robotics, telepresence, and teleoperations will certainly find scientific and industrial applications on Earth.

-- The Workshop agreed that the objectives of the program can be accomplished while at the same time protecting the lunar environment.

-- The Workshop concluded that current international space treaties provide a constructive legal regime within which to conduct peaceful scientific exploration and economic utilization of the Moon, including the establishment of permanent scientific bases and observatories.

In conclusion the Workshop agreed that this is the right time:

• to begin the first phase of the lunar program
• to prepare for future decisions on the later phases
• to implement international coordination and cooperation
• to establish, at a working level, a mechanism for regular coordination of activities.

In Europe, the Lunar Science Advisory Group, set up by ESA, has identified the scientific interest of returning to the Moon, addressing specifically the benefits of "Science of, on and from the Moon" in a study document titled "Mission to the Moon" ESA SP-1150 (1992). ESA has now developed a long-term strategy for lunar exploration based on a four-phased approach. In the ESA vision, the eventual goal of the fourth phase would be the realization of a human lunar outpost. During phase three, lunar resources would be developed and utilized. During phase two, a permanent robotic presence would be establish using robotic skills such as virtual-reality-type control. During the first phase, lunar explorer missions using existing technology and capability would be flown by various nations.

The scientific rationale for "A Moon Programme: The European View" is outlined in ESA BR-101 (May 1994), a portion of which is reproduced below:

"Science of the Moon"
"The Moon has preserved its primordial crust and is the most easily accessible location in the Solar System for studying the evolution of a natural planet immediately following accretion. It therefore holds the key to our understanding the early evolution of the Solar System. It also constitutes a natural laboratory in which general geological processes can be studied and understood."

"Following the Apollo and Luna programs, and more recently the Clementine project, our general knowledge and understanding of the Moon has improved dramatically. However, a number of major scientific themes have still to be investigated in greater depth, including: the origin of the Earth - Moon system, the thermal evolution and internal structure of the Moon, as well as its geochemistry, the impact-cratering history of the impact processes themselves, the formation of the regolith, the evolution of our Sun, through studying the record encapsulated in the lunar soil."

"Science on the Moon"
"The establishment of a lunar base would provide life scientists with challenging projects in the fields of exobiology, radiation biology, ecology and eventually also, with a manned presence, human physiology. In exobiology, studies on the Moon would contribute to our understanding of the principles leading to the origin, evolution and distribution of life. A laboratory on the Moon would allow the analysis of a wide variety of lunar samples and ... meteoritic material ...."

"The Moon also provides a unique laboratory for radiation-biology studies, with built-in sources of both electromagnetic and ionizing radiation, in which to investigate the biological importance of various components of cosmic and solar radiation. In preparing for the establishment of a human outpost on the Moon in the years to come, radiation monitoring, shielding, and solar-flare shelters must be studied, together with a reliable life-support system including biogeneration systems, as well as a health-monitoring system."

"Science from the Moon"
"The Moon is generally considered to be a unique astronomical site, offering better observing conditions than on Earth and with the unique advantage of affording access to the entire electromagnetic, particle and cosmic ray spectrum. The Moon is a large, stable and slowly rotating space platform, whose position and orientation are known exactly at all time. No thruster units are needed for "positioning" or "station-keeping", and instrument pointing is as simple as back on Earth. The far side of the Moon is the only place in the inner Solar System with a naturally 'clean' electromagnetic environment. One could also shield sensitive equipment from damaging radiation using the regolith material, and exploit the shadowed surface inside craters near the Moon's poles for siting of passively cooled instruments."

"The next step in astronomy will be the search for higher angular resolution, for the imaging of stars, galaxies and quasars, binary systems, and ultimately of extra-solar planets. This will eventually necessitate the construction of large antennas, telescopes, and interferometric systems on the Moon. Very-low-frequency (VLF) observations and interferometry in the ultraviolet to submillimeter spectral range will open new windows on the Universe, impacting on almost every field of astronomy. Although the Moon is not the only place in space where such observations are possible, kilometric sized (and larger) arrays and very large telescopes will most probably need to be sited on the lunar surface."

There is a lot of similarity of the European plan with the American Space Exploration Initiative (now cancelled), except that the early steps of the European plan would seem to be more achievable and the scientific rationale for the earlier phase is better stated. One of the main points made at the Lunar Workshop in Beatenberg was that an international effort should be affordable. The European plan will be presented to ESA this year and several candidates for the first lunar missions are apparently being developed in various countries. There will be a Proceedings of the International Lunar Workshop containing the papers presented along with the results of the Working Groups.